How do other countries around the world manage their radioactive waste?
How do other countries around the world manage their radioactive waste?
Radioactive waste is currently stored safely at regulated sites. Many countries that use nuclear energy already have final disposal facilities for low- and intermediate-level waste. As for the final disposal of high-level waste, several countries are now at a very advanced stage in the decision-making process. Here is an overview.
A Different Approach for Each Type of Waste
The progress of a country’s waste disposal program is often linked to the length and scale of its nuclear energy development program. The earlier a country began using nuclear energy, the more advanced its waste disposal program will be.
Commonly accepted concepts for the final disposal of radioactive waste differ depending on the type of waste. For short-lived low- and intermediate-level waste, most countries store it at or near the surface or at depths of several (tens of) meters. As for high-level waste, the solution under consideration is disposal in deep geological formations in tunnels (approximately 250 to 1,000 m below ground) or boreholes (approximately 2,000 to 5,000 m deep).
The disposal of low-level waste is currently underway in some countries
Several countries are already carrying out the final disposal of short-lived low- and intermediate-level waste in facilities located at or near the surface (in caves). These sites are subject to climate change (particularly ice ages), the effects of which must be taken into account when assessing the safety of the facilities.
Therefore, only short-lived low- or intermediate-level waste is disposed of permanently at shallow depths underground. This waste has a half-life of no more than 30 years. As a result, its radioactivity returns to background levels after a period of about 300 years (approximately 10 half-lives), and this waste can be treated like any other (conventional) waste.
Today, several low-level waste storage sites are already operational in Europe (the United Kingdom, Spain, France, Sweden, and Finland), Japan, and in the United States. All of these sites are located above ground, except for those in Sweden and Finland. In those two countries, the waste is stored in caves several tens of meters underground.
In Belgium, the above-ground storage project for low-level and short-lived intermediate-level waste is also well underway. ONDRAF, the agency responsible for all nuclear waste in Belgium, obtained a permit for above-ground storage in Dessel in May 2023. This permit was issued by royal decree after the permit application was reviewed and approved by the Scientific Council, an independent body composed of experts from the Federal Agency for Nuclear Control (AFCN).
Deep Geological Disposal of Waste: A Global Overview
The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in the United States is currently the only deep geological disposal facility already in operation (since 1999). Deep geological disposal projects are already well underway in Finland (Onkalo), Sweden (Forsmark), and France (Cigéo in Bure). Canada and the United Kingdom have also embraced the concept of deep underground storage. In these countries, the process of selecting a site for waste storage is currently underway.
High-level waste cannot be stored immediately
Long-lived high-level waste cannot be stored permanently straight away, because it still emits far too much residual heat. For now, this waste is still stored underwater in pools (at Tihange) or in containers located in facilities equipped with air cooling (dry storage, at Doel), most of which are located on nuclear power plant sites.
Once this transition period completed, the waste will be permanently stored in a safe manner. A wide range of storage methods has already been studied in the past. But today, around the world, deep geological disposal is emerging as the most promising option. The decision now focuses mainly on determining where and how to build these facilities.
Several (natural) barriers to contain radioactivity
Given the long period (some 100,000 years) during which high-level radioactive waste remains radioactive, the idea arose to store this waste in deep geological formations. The Earth’s interior contains stable geological layers composed, for example, of granite, salt, or clay. These layers are less susceptible to climate change, earthquakes, or other known natural phenomena. Certain layers (such as clay) also act as a natural barrier that isolates radioactive waste from its surroundings.
This solution requires no maintenance and therefore avoids passing on any responsibility to future generations. In the context of high-level waste storage, various barriers are also in place to prevent radioactivity from affecting humans and the environment:
First barrier: the packaging or container in which the waste is stored;
Second barrier: the storage site;
Third barrier: the natural barrier provided by the stable geological layer.
Belgium, a Pioneer in Research on Waste Storage in Clay Layers
Many countries are now conducting research on the storage of high-level radioactive waste in deep geological formations. Belgium paved the way by launching research into deep storage in clay as early as 1980, the year the HADES research laboratory was built. Belgium has thus been conducting unique research on the behavior of clay in the context of high-level waste storage for nearly 40 years. The HADES laboratory is located 230 meters underground at the SCK•CEN site in the Boom clay layer, where the clay reaches the surface and is mined for brick production.
